ENRICHMENT MATERIAL TO CLASS VIII IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 1 METRO (SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD (SBI))

Enrichment material with the top two English language and the bottom under Indonesian

IN ENGLISH :

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH is a process of accretion or organism cell size. This growth is quantitative / measurable.
DEVELOPMETis a process towards maturity in the organism. This process qualitatively.
Both the growth or development is irreversible.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT PLANT

In general, growth and developments in plant begins to zygote stage, which is fertilized with male female sex cells. Cleavage zygote produces Meristem which will continue to divide and experience differentiation.
Differentiation is the change of state of some cells, forming organs and structures have different functions.
There are 2 kinds of growth, namely:

1. Primary Growth

Occur as a result of cell division of primary meristem tissue cells. Take place in the embryo, the ends of plants such as roots and stems.
The embryo has three important parts:
a. embryonic shoots of candidate stem and leaf
b. namely embryonic root root candidate
c. cotyledons of food reserves
Plant growth can be measured with an instrument called auksanometer.
Regional growth in roots and stems tcrbagi based activities into 3 regions
a. Regional division
The cells in this region actively dividing (meristematik)
b. Elongation region
Being in the rear area division
c. Regional differentiation
Rearmost part of the growth area. The cells have
differentiation to form the true roots and young leaves and
lateral buds that will become a branch.

2. Secondary Growth

Is the activity of secondary meristem cells of cambium and cork cambium. This growth was found in dicotyledonous plants, gymnosperms and causes enlargement of the size (diameter) tumubuhan.
- At first cambium present only in vascular bundles, called cambium or cambium vasis intravasikuler. Its function is to form the primary xylem and phloem.
- Next parenchyma root / trunk located between vascular bundles, the cambium, called cambium intervasis.
- Cambium intravasis and intervasis Þ form a circle of concentric shapes.
Cambium located next to the skin tissue that serves as protector. Arises from an imbalance between xylem and phloem permbentukan faster than the growth of the skin.
The process of germination
Germination begins with the absorption of water from the surrounding seed, good soil, air, or other media. The changes observed are enlargement of grain size is called imbibition stage (means "drink"). Seeds absorb water from the surrounding environment, both from land and air (in the form of dew or moisture. The effect is happening is because of the growing size of the seed embryo cells enlarged) and beans to soften. This process is purely physical.
The presence of water in the cell to activate a number of enzymes early germination. Phythohormone absisat acid levels decreased, while gibberellin increases. Based on the study of gene expression in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana is known that the germination of locus-locus that regulates ripening embryos, such as ACID ABSCISIC insensitive 3 (ABI3), fusca 3 (FUS3) and LEAFY COTYLEDON 1 (LEC1) decreased its role (downregulated) and vice versa locus-locus which encourage germination increased role (upregulated), such as GIBBERELIC ACID 1 (GA1), GA2, GA3, GAI, ERA1, street vendors, SPY, and Sly. It is known that in the normal germination process a group of transcription factors that regulate auxin (called Auxin Response Factors, ARFs) tempered by Mirna. [1]
Change of control is to stimulate cell division in the active conduct of mitosis, such as at the end of the radicle. As a result, the bigger the size of radicle and leather or pressed from the seed shell, which eventually burst. At this stage the necessary prerequisite that the shell beans soft enough for the embryo to be broken.

Type germination

Based on the position of cotyledons in the germination process known hipogeal and epigeal germination. Hipogeal is elongated growth of the epicotyl which cause seed plumula out through the skin and emerged on the ground. Cotyledon relatively fixed position. Examples of this type occurs in snow peas and corn. In epigeal hipokotillah who grew elongated, resulting in cotyledon and plumula pushed to the ground. Germination of this type such as occurs in green beans and distance. Knowledge of this is used by agronomists to estimate the depth of planting.
Li et al. (2007). Repression of Auxin RESPONSE FACTOR10 by microRNA 160 is critical for seed germination and post-germination stages. The Plant Journal 52:133-146.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS

Growth and development in animals occur in all parts of his body. Usually the growth and development is initiated from the fertilization process. Growth and development in animals including humans can be divided into two main phases, namely growth and embryonic development and post-embryonic growth and development.

1. Growth and embryonic development

Growth and embryonic development is the phase of growth and development of living beings during the embryonic period that begins with the events of fertilization until the formation of a fetus in the mother's body.

Phase fertilization is a meeting between the sperm cell and ovum cells will produce zygote. Zygote will perform cell division (cleavage). Zygote further growth and development through the stages of cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis.
Cleavage (cleavage). Zygote will experience division by mitosis, ie from one cell into two cells, two cells become four cells, four cells become eight cells, and so on. Cell division takes place rapidly and will produce cells of children who remained gathered into a unity that resembles grapes called morula. In subsequent growth, morula blastula will be having a cavity. The process of formation of morula to blastula called blastulasi.

Morula cell formation just as it is a ball (round) due to continuous cell division. The existence of one with another cell is tight. Morulasi the process of morula formation.

Blastula is a continuation of morula formation which continues to experience division. Blastula form marked by a change in the cell by holding pelekukan irregular. Inside there blastula cell fluid called Blastosoel. Blastulasi the process of formation of blastula.

Gastrula stage is formation of blastula that pelekukan continued his body was more real and has a layer of embryonic body wall and body cavity. Gastrula stage in some particular animals, such as lower animals and higher animals, differ in terms of number of layers of the embryo's body wall. Triploblastik the animal which has 3 layers of embryonic body wall, in the form ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

It is owned by the higher animals such as Vermes, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and all vertebrates. Diploblastik ie animals that have 2 layers of embryonic body wall, in the form ectoderm and the endoderm. Owned by the lower animals such as sponges and Coelenterata. Gastrulation is the process of formation of gastrula stage.

Gastrulation. In subsequent developments, will be the gastrula stage blastula. Gastrula stage forming process called gastrulation. In this form of gastrula stage, the embryo has been formed into three embryonic layers, namely the outer layer (ectoderm), the middle layer (mesoderm), and the inner layer (endoderm). So gastrulation is the formation of three embryonic layers. In a further development of embryonic layers will experience growth and development to produce a variety of organs.

Organogenesis. Organogenesis is the process of formation of organs or organs such as brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and so forth. Ectoderm will experience differentiation into skin, hair, nervous system and sensory equipment. Mesoderm will experience differentiation into muscle, skeletal, reproductive organs (such as testes and ovaries), blood circulation tool.

And excretion tool. Endoderm differentiation would have become a tool of digestion, glands associated with digestion, and respiratory equipment. Organogenesis is a highly complex process.

In mammals, the embryo has the embryonic membranes, ie amnion, chorion, sakus vitelinus, and alantois. Embryo membrane serves to protect the embryo against drought, shocks, help breathing, excretion, as well as other important functions while in the womb of its mother.

2. Post-embryonic growth and development

Post-embryonic growth and development is the growth and development after the embryonic period. In this period of growth and development that occurs mainly perfecting the means of reproduction (sexual organs), and usually also only an increase in the size of body parts only.

In certain animal groups before growing into an adult animal, forming the first larval stage. In the animal class of post-embryonic growth and development is the formation of larval stages prior to grow and develop into adult animals.

Post-embryonic growth and development through the larval stage is known as metamorphosis.
Examples of animals that experienced metamorphosis are the insects and frogs. Find page

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN

After the events of fertilization, the zygote will develop into a perfect embryo and the embryo would be implanted in the mother's uterine wall. This occurred during 6-12 days after fertilization. The cells growing embryo begins producing a hormone known as hCG or human chorionic gonadotropin, the substance detected by most pregnancy tests. HCG make maternal hormones to interrupt the normal menstrual cycle, making the process of pregnancy be continued.

The fetus will get the nutrients through the placenta / placenta. The embryo is protected by membranes which are:

1. Amniotic membrane that is directly related to the embryo and produces amniotic fluid. Serves to protect the embryo from shock.
2. Chorion which is located outside the amniotic membranes and form a tuft which connects with the main wall of the uterus. The interior contained blood vessels.
3. Alantois the membrane contained in the umbilical cord with epithelial tissue and blood vessels remain disappeared. Functioning as a regulator of embryo with the placenta circulation, transporting nutrients and O2, including substance waste and CO2.
4. Sacus vitelinus the membrane that lies between the placenta and amnion. This place is the first appearance of blood vessels.

1. Stages of Human Development

a. Stages of embryonic development in

The first month: Already established organs of the body such as heart-shaped pipe, central nervous system (brain which form blood clots), and skin. Embryo size 0.6 cm.

Month two: Hands and feet were formed, the inner genitals, cartilage (cartilago). Embryos measuring 4 cm.

Third Month: The entire organ has been fully formed, including external genital organs. Embryo reaches 7 cm long with a weight of 20 grams.

Fourth Month: It's called a fetus and the fetus begins to move on. The fetus weighed 100 grams with a length of 14 cm.

Fifth Month: The fetus will be more actively engaged, to provide a response to loud noise and kicking. Fetal genitalia are more obvious and will be visible when carried ultrasound (Ultra Sonographi).

Sixth Month: The fetus is able to move more freely with the rotating body (position)

Seventh Month: The fetus moves with your head toward the vagina.

Eight months: The fetus is more active moving and kicking. Weight and length of growing fetus, such as 35-40 cm long and weighing 2500-3000 grams.

Ninth month: The position of the fetal head is facing the vagina. Babies are ready to be born.

b. Stage of development in childhood

Childhood begins at birth (babies) to adolescence. Babies need milk (breast milk). We recommend breast milk fed to infants during the twelve months from birth. This is because babies need breast milk during the first year of life. At the age of five has been growth of brain cells, so that needed nutritious food.

At the age of 6 months, baby's first teeth will grow so-called milk teeth. After about age 6 years, baby teeth will be dated in turn and replaced by permanent teeth. Along with age, babies will learn to sit, crawl, stand and walk. The brain grows bigger and the baby began to speak.

Most babies start walking and talking around the age of one year. At age three, children begin to speak a short sentence. By the age of ten years of the children began to make friends, they also already know how to share, perform their tasks and cooperate.

c. Stage of development in adolescence (puberty)

Growth and human development into adulthood through a stage called puberty. The word puberty is derived from the Latin word meaning a person ages, a period in which the child is able to be prepared for individuals who can perform the task of continuing biological offspring or the breed.

Biological changes in the form of starting operation of the reproductive organs, and accompanied also by changes that are psychological. At this time either men or women showed a fairly rapid growth. Agency will increase in height, growing fat and sex organs have been able to produce the mature sex cells.

Important Characteristics of Puberty Periode:

a) Puberty is a period of transition and overlap. It said the transition because puberty is in transition between childhood to adolescence. Said to overlap because some biological-psychological characteristics childhood still dimiliknya, while some also had characteristic teenagers.

b) Puberty is a period of rapid changes. The change from childhood body shape generally in the direction of the adult body. There were also changes in attitude and character that stand out, especially to peers of the opposite sex, to games and family members.

c) His body was beginning to show bloom-the body that sets it apart with a child's body. Some features of puberty that he has shown in the attitudes, feelings, desires, and deeds. Her most prominent among others attitude uneasy and uncertain.

d) Growth and development of the body, grow normally, according to age. Weight 40 kg, and height.

e) The development of female sex organs characterized by the first menstruation, or "menarche" which is accompanied by a variety of uncomfortable feelings for those who experience it.

f) Menstruation (periods), the first time he experienced at the age of 9 years. When viewed from the age when he experienced menstruation, she was still in late childhood.

g) that began to show symptoms of herself, namely:
- Hips are enlarged and rounded
- Chest an increasingly visible protruding
- The growth rambuh in the genital area, underarms, arms and legs
- Change in voice from childhood to sound more melodious (melodic)
- Sweat glands are more active and often grow pimples
- Skin becomes larger than the skin of children.

The cause of the emergence of puberty is influenced by pituitary hormones (center of the entire system of the body's hormone-producing glands). Thanks to these hormones work, teenagers entering puberty so that began to emerge of secondary sex characteristics that can differentiate between women and men.

In other words, puberty occurs because the body starts producing sex hormones so that the reproductive organs are functioning and the body is changing.
d. Development Stage adulthood

As an individual who is considered mature, the role and responsibilities of increasingly large. he no longer had to depend economically, sociologically or psychologically on their parents. They should feel challenged to record himself as an independent adult person.

Any matters or problems experienced in his life as far as possible be handled alone without the help of others, including parents. Good experiences, both successful and failed in the face of a problem going to be a valuable lesson in order to shape a person is mature, strong, and responsible towards their future.

Physically, a young adult (young adulthood) presents the perfect profile in the sense that the growth and physiological aspects of development has reached the top. They have the endurance and vibrant health standards so that in doing various activities seem initiative, creative, energetic, fast, and proactive.

In general, they are classified as young adults (young) are those aged 20-40 years. According to an expert in developmental psychology, Santrock (1999), young adults, including the transition period, both physically transition (physically trantition) transition in the intellectual (cognitive trantition), and the transition of social roles (social role trantition).

Of physical growth, according to Santrock (1999) found that young adults are experiencing the transition from adolescence to enter old age. At this time, an individual is no longer referred to as the responsibility (through puberty), but has been classified as a person who is really an adult (maturity).

He no longer treated as a child or adolescent, but as is appropriate as an adult other. Physical appearance is really ripe, so ready to perform tasks such as other adults, such as working, married, and had children. He can act responsibly for themselves or others (including family).

All actions have to be put on the rules applicable law, meaning if there is breach, the consequences of his actions would gain legal sanctions (eg fines, subject to criminal or civil law). The period was marked also by the physical changes, such as grow fur- fine hair, voice changes, menstruation, and reproductive capacity.

e. Growth in the elderly

At the intermediate level of maturity (40-65 years) men reached the peak of the most productive period of time. Advanced age is the term given the final stage of the aging process. In defining the boundaries of the elderly according to the National Family Planning Coordinating Board, there are three aspects to consider the biological aspects, economic aspects and social aspects (BKKBN 1998).

Biologically elderly population is experiencing population aging process continuously, which is characterized by decreased physical endurance that is increasingly vulnerable to attack a disease that can cause death. This is due to changes in the structure and function of cells, tissues and organ systems.

Economically, more elderly people is seen as a burden rather than as a resource. Many people assume that old age is no longer life provides many benefits, some even up to think that life is old age, often negatively perceived as a burden of family and community.

From the social aspect, of elderly people is a social group itself. In Western countries, elderly people occupy the lower social strata in young people.
According to Bernice Neugarten (1968) James C. Chalhoun (1995) old age is a time where people can feel satisfied with his success. But for others, this period is the beginning of decline. Old age is seen as a period of decline, the social and human weakness is very widespread today.

World Health Organization (WHO) classify the elderly into 4, namely:
Middle age (middle age) 45 -59 years, Advanced age (elderly) 60 -74 year old elderly (old) 75-90 years old and very old age (very old) over 90 years.

Meanwhile, according to Prayitno in Aryo (2002) says that every person associated with the elderly people aged 56 years and over, has no income and are powerless to make a living for basic needs for daily life.

In general, during these elderly people has decreased cognitive and psychomotor function. According to Zainudin (2002) Cognitive function involves the process of learning, understanding perception, understanding, attention and others that cause reactions and behavior of the elderly becomes increasingly slow.

Psychomotor functions include matters relating to the drive of the will of such motion, action, coordination, resulting in that the elderly or less agile.